White Stock for Meats and Vegetables

Have half a pound of chopped beef suet or marrow, and as much fresh fat pork, melt the whole in a saucepan, adding to it two minced carrots, two onion and one onion with six cloves in it, a bunch of parsley garnished with a bayleaf and as much thyme and a bit of mace. Add to it a teaspoonful of whole peppers, and put this on the fire to fry without coloring. Mix in well one ounce of flour, and dilute with three quarts of water, and four quarts of broth, salt, and the pulp of two lemons. This stock is used for cooking calf's heads, lamb trotters and also for artichoke bottoms, cardoons and oyster plants.

Kitchen Utensils

ROASTER AND SPITS (Rotissoire et broches).

In large kitchens the only roaster possible is the one shown in Fig. 115 with its broad hearth, long spits, long hanging chains and wheels; an endless chain with a weight sufficiently heavy to rotate it, steam, electricity or hydraulic pressure can to be used advantageously to attain the same end. Fig. 117, represents a roasting spit for small game, quails, woodcocks, thrush, etc. It is provided with six skewers; run the game on to one of these through the two leg bones; use as much as possible the different sides for different games, for instance one side for quails, partridges or thrush and the other three skewers for snipe, woodcock, plovers, bustards, etc. These spits are very useful for large dinners, for eight quails can be put on each skewer or forty-eight quails can be roasted at once without having them too crowded. The length of the spit is sixty-eight inches and the length of each one of the six skewers is twenty inches. For cradle spit No. 116, the cut of meat to be roasted such as loin, the saddle is placed exactly in the center to regulate the weight evenly. The simple spit for poultry, game, turkey, etc. is shown in Fig. 118. A spit being at times an impossibility, one is frequently obliged to have resource to the more simple roasters. The greatest objection to the old fashioned shell roaster is that the spit did not turn alone, it had to be everlastingly turned for if left the meat would certainly spoil; a great improvement on this is the turning spring spit to be wound up like a clock and strikes an alarm when slackening by the movable balls of the fan striking on a gong (Fig. 119). There are other roasters having two spoons turning at the same time as the spit feeding a small reservoir found on the top of the spit and through a shallow furrow perforated by small holes, the meat is continuously basted. The three pieces composing this oven are movable and can therefore be transported to any desirable place; the shell can easily be fastened on to the wall. There are also English spits adapted for all hearths (Fig. 120); it is easy to fasten it to a movable hearth fitting with the spit. These are run by clock work placed on top; the roasts are suspended perpendicularly and always turn in the same direction.

Fig. 121 represents a wrought or sheet iron pan; the interior has a basket which is used for frying small fish, potatoes, croquettes, etc. Place inside the objects intended for frying and plunge the basket into the frying fat after it has attained the required heat; the articles being cooked and of a fine color, withdraw the basket to drain them properly.

Fig. 122 represents a copper case containing four high saucepans called bain-maries. A bain-marie consists of a vessel filled with boiling water into which is placed another vessel containing the substance that are required to be heated. The materials placed in the second vessel can only acquire the temperature of the boiling water and heat gradually and progressively and therefore can be stopped at any time. Each saucepan should be ticketed with the name of the sauce it contains so that any sauce or soup can be selected without wasting time in searching for it.

Fig. 123. The salamander and oven hithertofore used in kitchen to glaze or brown dishes presented difficulties on account of the attention and watchful care it necessarily required. By means of the new gas salamander, fish can be almost instantaneously glazed when covered with a well thickened or buttered sauce without any danger whatever of having the sauce curdle. This salamander is lighted by gas and can be fastened to the wall at the back of the range. It consists of two platforms, the upper one fixed and the lower one movable and sufficiently big to place the largest dishes on it. Naturally the gas comes from the top and it is easy to regulate its intensity by a stop cock. Two minutes suffice to obtain a perfect glazing without having the bottom of the dish attain the slightest heat, thus the sauce cannot deteriorate whatever. It is an indispensable utensil and assists the cook greatly both as regards its usefulness and speed.

Fig. 124 is the reproduction of a very useful broiler, offering numerous facilities for various purposes. The broiling takes place in a metal case, it being provided with five gas tubes, having the sides bored with small holes, the gas projects into small bells to have it purified and then can be used for broiling without the annoyance of smell nor smoke. It is principally used for broiling toasts, canapes, or toasts for sandwiches; meats can also be broiled thereon such as cutlets, chops and beefsteaks. When the bottom is closed with a movable door, it can be used for roasting chickens, legs of mutton, beef, etc. The top part is useful for keeping things hot. All gas stoves can be regulated and moderated, according to the work, by modifying or increasing the volume of gas.

Fig. 125 shows a singeing apparatus shaped like a horn; the largest part, from whence issues the flame is covered with a very fine metallic cloth which causes the flame to become enlarged. There is an opening on the other or thin end about an inch in diameter for the purpose of combining the air with the gas, forming a Bunsen burner. Poultry and game can be singed without blackening the skin whatever.

Fig. 126 is a steam table with covered dishes, cases and bain-maries. The square boxes are used for soups, stews, etc.; the covered dishes for large pieces of meat to be carved and for entrees; the small steamers are for keeping the sauces and gravies. Instead of a dish on the right, place a carving-board with a knife and fork. The inside is used for keeping the dishes hot before and after they are dressed. These steam tables are heated by steam or gas, and are advantageously used either as a hot closet or as a substitute for a chafing dish.

BROILER AND RANGE (Grillade et Fourneau).

The broiler shown below is most useful, for on it can be cooked all meats, either using charcoal, or embers, or gas. In olden times meats were broiled on the embers of a chimney hearth, fanning continuously to keep the fire alive. For many years sliding broilers have been used and charcoal. With gas the broiling is done in a metal case, by a gas tube having the sides pierced with small holes. Although gas is very little used in kitchens still it deserves to be encouraged; for not only does this style of broiling interest amateurs by its ingenuity, but it also has its particular advantages which are manifold, as the operation takes place with out the slightest trouble and without having the meats give forth any smoke or disagreable smell, for the heat attains the meat from the top and all the escaping fat falls into a receptacle. Fig. 127 shows an improved range an explanation of which is unnecessary.

PORTABLE HEATER (Etuve Portative).

This heater is used for transporting meats out-outside or keeping hot dishes to be served. It is heated with small cakes of prepared coal, made red-hot in the hearth of the range, then put into a small sheet-iron box placed at the bottom of the heater. It can also be heated with an alcohol lamp. The heaters are made of tin and provided with two gratings inside; they can be of any size (Fig. 128).

STEAM KETTLE WITH DOUBLE JACKET (Marmite a Vapeur avec Double Fond.

Fig. 129. A steam double bottom kettle either having a ball in the center or else a winding pipe. In this same shaped pot all systems can be employed. The one shown on the figure has a double jacket; on top place a ring and in this a tinned basin; fill it half full of boiling water and use it for cooking ices; stocks, broths and consommes are cooked in those having a ball in the center, or else a winding pipe, but the ball is preferable. For cooking potatoes, lobsters, terrapin, etc., iron pots with rounded corners are used; on the bottom is an iron winding pipe furnished with holes: at the bottom is a hole for letting the water from the condensed stream run out, on top a hinged cover sufficiently heavy to close it hermetically, specially required for these kinds of pots.

SAUTOIR, SAUCEPAN, SOUP POT, BRAZIERE (Sautoir, Casserole, Marmite, Braisiere).

Fig. 130 represents a flat, thick copper saucepan, generally called a sautoir; they are also made of a thinner copper and are intended for sauteing fillets of chickens, escalops, cutlets, etc. It is necessary to have these of all sizes, large as well as small.

Fig. 131 represents a copper saucepan tinned in the interior and furnished with a cover fitting inwardly. These also must be of all sizes according to the importance of the work to be executed.

Fig. 132 represents a glazing saucepan; the edges of this one are only half as high as the ordinary saucepan; it is covered with a hollow cover fitting outside the pan; this is for the purpose of holding red hot coals or ember so to glaze and color the meats.

Fig. 133 represents a soup pot for broths with side handles, with or without a faucet, serving to draw off the liquid. Copper pots are preferable to iron or earthen ones, the first give the broth or soup a dark color and the latter in time acquire a bad taste.

Fig. 134 represents a braiziere or long stew pan having rounded ends and handles. Its deep cover is made to hold hot embers, but this is not necessary if the braizing is done in the oven, then a well fitting cover will be found sufficient.

FISH KETTLE (Poissonniere).

Fig. 135 represents a fish kettle, these are either of copper or tin. The fish is placed on a metal sheet perforated with half inch holes, this has handles on both sides, it is put down into the bottom of the fish kettle and lifted again when the fish is cooked, thus avoiding the breaking of it.

Fig. 136 represents oblong shaped, deep baking pans having handles on each end. These pans are furnished with a perforated metal grate. Their raised edge cover (Fig. 136), can when turned upside down, also serve for a deep pan suitable for cooking flat fishes, fricandeaux, sweet-breads, etc.

Fig. 137 represents a series of six small timbales with flat bottoms ranging from No. 1 to No. 6. These timbales as shown in the figures are just half their actual size.

Fig. 138 shows a series of convex molds for mousselines, No. 1 to No. 6. These molds like the flat bottomed ones are drawn half their proper size. They are to be placed on metal sheets perforated according to the size of the molds, supported by half inch high feet.

Fig. 139 are various border molds, the first has a concave bottom and is specially used for dressing entrees of chicken and game fillets, quenelles, etc. The second is an oval mold with a flat bottom useful for large releve borders. The third is a round bomb shaped mold with flaring sides, used for molding rice or forcemeat borders. The fourth is a plain bottom mold and the fifth is of an octagon shape with a flat bottom.

BASIN (Bassine).

Basins are made of copper; as a general rule they are not tinned. In large kitchens there are some that are tinned and others that are not. If untinned they can also be used not only for beating up egg whites, cooking fruits, and jellies, but also for blanching and cooking green vegetables, such as spinach, green peas, string beans, etc., thereby retaining their natural color, giving them a more appetizing appearance.

KITCHEN SIEVES (Tamis de Cuisine).

It is impossible to perform any kitchen work without the use of large and small sieves. Sieves and colanders are indispensable either for straining purees, forcemeats, gravies and broths, for draining purposes or when required to be laid aside for further use.

MOLDS (Les Moules).

The Figs. 144 and 145 represent two fancy jelly molds; they are cylindrical shaped, having a cover of the same size, hollow on top so that it can hold chopped ice. Many dessert molds are to be found in the market unprovided with covers, thereby making them useless and inconvenient. The Fig. 146 shows the cover of the mold seen upside down having a small piece adjusted to the center which fits into the cylinder of the mold.

Fig. 147 is a copper macedoine mold with a tinned double copper bottom. This double bottom is movable and is kept at an even distance from the sides and bottom of the mold by three catches attached to it. If the double bottom be removed it then can be used for aspics of foies gras, unmolding it on to a jelly border having a support placed in the center.

JUICE PRESS (Presse Sucs).

These presses are for extracting all the liquid parts of fruits needed for preparing syrups and fruit jellies, such as currants, raspberries, blackberries, strawberries and barberries, in fact all fruits. This utensil should be made of wood for all red fruits lose their natural color when brought in contact with any metal.

CREAM MOLDS (Moules a Creme).

Made of tin or copper; they are fancy and cylindrical. Used for molding cold creams, pains of fruits, blanc manges, etc. (Fig. 148).

JELLY AND BABA MOLDS (Moules a Gelee et Moules a Baba).

Jelly molds are made both of copper, tinned in the inside, fancy and cylindrical, and are used for thick creams, blanc manges, flamris, etc. Three or four are not too many to have in a kitchen. Baba molds are of copper, tin and earthen-ware; they are cylindrical shaped and generally have deep furrows in them, but can be of any shape (Fig. 149).

"PAIN" AND PUDDING CYLINDRICAL MOLDS (Moules Cylindriques a Pain et a Pouding).

These are cylindrical shaped, tinned on the inside. Generally puddings are cooked in these molds, but they can also be used for rice or fruit pains, besides they are very useful in a kitchen either for hot entrees or else molding hot or cold sweet dishes. Dome shaped molds can also be used to poach pains and puddings (Fig. 150).

Fig. 151 is a copper mold, tinned inside and outside, the double bottom is removable and is kept at an even distance from the edges and bottom by three catches fastened to it. It can be used for cold dessert creams; the same mold without the double bottom, but having a cover fitted on the outside can be utilized for hot or cold puddings

Fig. 152 represents a tin mold for making paste croustades and can also be used for molding rice or hominy.

PIE MOLDS (Moules a Pate).

Hot pie molds are shallow and round: for cold pies they are round oval or oblong; made of tin or copper, but the tin ones answer the purpose. The round or oval ones are hinged (Fig. 153).

WHIPS OR WHISKS USED FOR KITCHEN AND PASTRY (Fouets de Cuisine et de patisserie).

Whips or whisks are made of wicker or tinned wire, several of them should be kept on hand as they are frequently used. The wicker ones are the best, especially for beating creams, but for whipping hot liquids, such as consomme, sweet or meat jellies, the wire ones are preferable. When beating the white of eggs be careful to observe that the tin on the whisks is partly worn off, for the contact of egg-white with new tin causes it to curdle (Fig. 154). Some use whisks made of untinned brass wire, the wire not being as heavy as the other.

KITCHEN KNIVES, CLEAVER, CAN-OPENER (Couteaux de Cuisine, Couperet, Ouvre-boite).

Have one large, strong knife for chops, one large carving knife for cooked meats, one smaller one for the same purpose and one kitchen knife. It is always advisable to keep a few well sharpened ones in reserve, either for carving or any other unforeseen occasion. Besides these there must be a channeled knife for turning vegetables and fruits. A knife for peeling and also a can-opener; it is most necessary to have a large and strong cleaver for splitting bones, also to be used instead of a mallet for beating meats to flatten them according to one's wants (Fig. 155 to 162).

SUGAR DREDGER (Poudriere).

Fig. 163 represents a sugar dredger containing about a pint. It is to be filled three-quarters full with powdered sugar and is used for sweetening pastry, fritters, omelets, etc.

LEG OF MUTTON HANDLE (Manche a Gigot).

These handles are made of metal fitting on the bone of a leg of mutton, lamb or ham; they assist the carver to turn around and cut the meat according to necessity. The old style ones are silver plated and screwed on to the bone, but the new style are made of steel and are fitted on by means of a rubber ring placed inside which grasps the bone tightly without breaking it (Fig. 164).

THERMOMETER (Thermometre).

Fig. 165, a thermometer used for cooking sugar. These can be used for all kitchen purposes, cold chambers, refrigerators, etc.

COPPER BASIN FOR COOKING SUGAR WITH THERMOMETER (Bassine pour Cuire le Sucre au Thermometre).

Fig. 166 is a small copper basin with a tin cover having a hole in its top sufficiently large to allow the thermometer to be inserted. The steam that condenses on the side of the cover is continually cleansing the sides of the basin, so that when the sugar is well stirred there is no necessity to watch it, only see that it continues to cook to the desired heat.

SYRUP GAUGE (Pese Sirop).

After a person has the habit of cooking sugar he rarely requires a syrup gauge; the degree of cooking can be judged by simply touching it with the fingers, but those who have not yet attained this proficiency need always use the syrup gauge. Place in a bottle and then plunge into the syrup this glass instrument which rises or falls according to the thickness or thinness of the liquid thereby giving the exact degree of its cooking by the numbers marked on it (Fig. 167).

COLUMN BOX (Boite a Colonnes).

Fig. 168 represents a column box. These tubes are for removing fanciful cuts of truffles, tongues, egg white, etc. The medium sized ones can be utilized for stoning Spanish olives; they are also used for coring apples and for rolling paper frills, for cutting vegetables, jardiniere, macedoine or Chartreuse, for bread croutons, etc.

LEMON SQUEEZER (Presse Citron).

Fig. 169 represents a lemon-squeezer. This kind is in common use and is used for squeezing lemons for ices, jellies, etc.

STRAINER (CHINESE), AND MIXING POT FOR THICKENING (Passoire Chinois et Melangeur pour Liaisons).

Fig. 170 represents a sauce strainer commonly called Chinese; they are made of tin or metallic tammy. It is necessary to have several sizes more or less fine; they are either pointed or flat as shown in the design and are in constant use for sauces and gravies.

Fig. 171 is a kind of pot containing a mixer. This is to stir egg-yolks and cream together for pouring it into sauces and ragouts for thickening; this is found especially handy for Hollandaise sauce.

GRIDIRON (Gril).

Fig. 172 represents a thin wire double gridiron; it is useful for toasting bread, crackers, broiling oysters, tomatoes, and sliced potatoes. Stronger and thicker gridirons are used for meats and fish, having just sufficient room to hold the articles.

MEAT CHOPPER (Pour Hacher les Viandes).

Fig. 173 is a perpendicular machine used for chopping meats; these are excellent, and are well adapted for making Salisbury steaks or Hamburg steaks. They have this advantage that they cut the meats without cutting the nerves, so that the meat comes to the top lightly chopped and nerveless.

FONTAGE CROUSTADE MOLD (Moule a Croustade Fontage).

Fig. 174 represents an iron in imitation of a small channeled timbale mold; it has a handle fourteen inches long, bent at the end and is furnished with a wooden handle. This mold is for the purpose of making fontage croustades (see Fontage, No. 907).

KITCHEN FORK (Fourchette de Cuisine).

Fig. 175 represents a kitchen fork, used for turning over any broiled articles, sautes or else for tossing rice, etc.

SKEWERS AND HATELETS (Brochettes et Hatelets).

Kitchen skewers are of iron, used for supporting large pieces of meat when laid on the spit. Small game are run on to skewers; the blade is flat, rounded on one end and pointed on the other. Table skewers are of white metal, silver or plated ware; they are used when broiling kidneys or other meats which are thrust on them (Fig. 176). Fig. 176a represents a hatelet and should not be confounded with a skewer.

KITCHEN GRATER (Rape de Cuisine).

An utensil made of tin having a semi-circular surface bored with projecting holes on which is to be grated either bread, cheese or various kinds of roots. There should always be two small graters in every spice box, one for grating nutmeg, the other for orange, lemon or Seville orange peel. The two latter ought to be enclosed in small separate boxes (Fig. 177).

PASTE PINCHER (Pince a Pate).

With this small pincher the crest of pies are pinched; it will be better to have two; one large and one small (Fig. 178).

PASTRY BAG OR POCKET AND SOCKETS (Poche et Poche avec Douilles).

These pockets are made of unbleached duck; they are used for laying out meringues, choux, or else quenelle forcemeat; they are of the greatest utility in kitchen and pastry work and it is advisable to have them of graduated sizes. The sockets are movable and are fitted in the bottom of the pocket before filling them.

Fig. 180 shows us the graduated different sizes reduced to the tenth of their proper dimensions; these are the ones most generally used for kitchen work and pastry.

Fig. 181 is half the natural size and represents a section of a series of sockets the most used for all work.

SOUFFLE PAN, AND PIE DISH (Casserole a Souffle, et Plat a Tarte).

These vessels are of plated ware or sterling silver, made in different shapes and different sizes; they are indispensable in a kitchen and are used principally for cooking souffles, but they can also be used for baking purposes, for poaching creams by bain marie and in fact for serving vegetables or garnishings on the table (Fig. 182).

Pie Dish.—Made of English china that can be placed in the oven without any danger of cracking; they are most useful. In these dishes one can cook meat, chicken, game or fish pies, fruit pies, or puddings, or creams, they can also be used for souffles. There is no end to their utility in a kitchen and there should always be plenty of different sizes. What makes them more useful and convenient is that they can very well be placed on the table with their contents as they were taken from the oven; for instance, anything baked, creams, puddings, etc. (Fig. 183).

KITCHEN BRUSHES (Pinceaux de Cuisine).

Brushes will be found very useful in a kitchen; it is better to have several; they can be made by any one; merely tying turkeys' tail feathers firmly together. Take the feathers, one by one, remove the feathers on each side, leaving only the end, then put about fifteen of these together, tie with rows of strings, beginning on the feathered end and girding tightly; fasten at the other or upper end, tying the string firmly; now cut the lower end to equalize the quills; they do not last very long. Brushes can be purchased made of hair with a tin handle, much neater, stronger and easier to keep clean; these are shown in the Figs. 184 and 184a.

OMELET, AND OYSTER STEW PAN (Poele a Omelette, et Casserole pour les Huitres).

Omelet Pan.—A black, iron pan, polished on the inside. These pans are used principally for omelets; they should never be washed; when coated or burned on the inside, scrape with a flexible knife all that sticks to the bottom, heat well and them rub with a cloth and some salt until perfectly clean. The French omelet pans are the best, both for shape and strength (Fig. 185).

Oyster Stew Pan.—This saucepan is made of various sizes in tin with a copper bottom. It is furnished with a rounded cover perforated in the center with several small holes. The handle is very long. This saucepan is used for oysters and their liquor placed on the hot fire and when the steam escapes through the holes then remove it at once (Fig. 186).

SPOONS (Cuilleres).

Fig. 187, represents four spoons, soup or table, dessert, tea and coffee.

The approximative liquid capacity is: six soup or tablespoonfuls of liquid make a gill or forty-eight a quart.

Twelve dessertspoonfuls of liquid for a gill; eighteen teaspoonfuls and thirty-six coffeespoonfuls. For sugar it requires eight tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar for a pound, sixteen dessertspoonfuls, twenty-four teaspoonfuls and forty-eight coffeespoonfuls. For flour it takes ten tablepoonfuls for a pound, twenty dessertspoonfuls, thirty teaspoonfuls and sixty coffeespoonfuls.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES (Poids et Mesures).

Various ways of obtaining weights and measures.

Weight by Quarts.—One quart of water weighs two pounds and four ounces; one quart of milk two pounds and an ounce and a half; cream two pounds and one ounce; oil one pound and fourteen ounces; melted butter the same weight as oil; powdered sugar one pound nine ounces; rice one pound three ounces; flour one pound two ounces; breadcrumbs eleven ounces; horseradish or cocoanut twelve ounces; wheaten grits or Indian meal fifteen ounces; oatmeal thirteen ounces; semolina one pound seven ounces.

Weight by Handfuls.—A handful of sugar weighs six ounces; flour four ounces; bread-crumbs two ounces; rice three ounces; herbs, parsley, etc., one ounce.

Weight by Coffeecups.—Six cupfuls of sugar weigh one pound; nine of flour one pound; eight of Indian meal, one pound; six of rice one pound. Ten black coffeecupfuls of water make one quart. Six teacupfuls of water make one quart. Four breakfast cupfuls of water make one quart.

REFRIGERATOR, ICE-BOX AND COLD ROOM (Refrigerateur, Glaciere Timbre et Chambre froide).

These refrigerators are to be kept full of ice so to reduce the temperature inwardly and to avoid inconvenience arising from the excessive heat of the atmosphere. A refrigerator as shown in the accompanying design is all that is necessary for a restaurant, etc. At a third of its height are placed wooden gratings to uphold the ice, underneath is to be found a sheet of zinc or galvanized sheet iron with a small gutter, at the end, between this and the sheet of iron is a space of six inches. The bottom parts of these ice-boxes are used for keeping either beef palates, calf's heads, sheep's trotters, croquette preparations of all kinds, etc.; each compartment should be entirely separate from one another, having a special one for fish, one for poultry, one for game, one for cold meats, one for garnishings, etc.

The Ice box is simply a box of an oblong shape sufficiently thick to be filled with a nonconducting material such as charcoal, sawdust, tow, or simply an hermetically empty space not to allow the air to pass through the box; they are lined inside with galvanized sheet iron or zinc.

The cold room is of a more modern invention, the meats being hung up in the inside. Cooked meats, also different provisions requiring a cold temperature of forty-five to fifty degrees Fahrenheit, such as butter; milk or cream, rest on shelves or in drawers, without being in direct contact with the ice, for it is evident that the cold air surrounding these provisions does not contain the slightest moisture that might destroy their properties. Another advantage the cold room has is that a quantity of cold entrees or sweet dishes already decorated with the jellies that are to be served will keep in perfect condition for a few days, while those placed directly on the ice do not afford the same security; however, each one has its own peculiar advantages and one must not be sacrificed for the other, on the contrary in all large kitchens each one has its own place and both have become indispensable.

MEAT-SAFE (Garde-Manger).

This is a kind of round or square cage composed of metallic cloth on a framework of iron or wood, provided inside with several shelves; also hanging hooks to which can be hung meats, poultry and game. On the shelves are placed all the provisions that should be exposed to the air without incurring any danger of contact with flies. These meat-safes are either suspended from the ceiling of the pantry by a pulley or else fastened to the wall outside a window; in both cases in order to have them accomplish their purpose they must be exposed to a thorough draught of air in as cool a place as possible. If the meat safe is hung in a room it can be entirely open on top, if on the contrary it is fastened outside then the upper part must certainly have a slightly inclining roof so that no rain can penetrate the inside. These meat-safes are only useful where ice is scarce for ice-boxes, are far preferable under all circumstances.

Figs. 190 to 196 indicate the difference between the centimeter and the inch: the dimensions of circles, triangles, lozenges, ovals, rounds or squares all measured by the sixteenth of an inch across the diameter, or on the length for ovals and lozenges. These figures will at once give an exact idea of the proportions as they are explained in the different recipes, either for garnishings or salpicons or else for the diameter of sockets, column tubes, etc.

BILL OF FARE HOLDER (Porte-Menu).

The bill of fare is the programme of the dinner on which is found inscribed the dishes composing the meal. For ceremonious dinners the bills of fare are printed or else written on rich paper. They are laid on the table or fastened in a holder such as shown in Fig. 197; they are to be made either of silver or silver plate; if the bills of fare are printed, they are then usually laid between two guests.

COVERS FOR ROUND AND LONG DISHES (Cloches pour Plats Ronds et Longs).

Those for the kitchen are made of tin and are used to cover the dishes after they are dressed, either to keep them in the hot closet or to carry to the dining-room; have always round and long ones for both large and small dishes. These require to be kept very clean and bright.

SOUPS (Potages).

Soup is the prelude of the dinner; it is a healthy, light and stimulating food, agreeing with every one, especially children and old people. The basis of soup is broth, and therefore it is on this article that one's whole attention must be borne. There are two kinds of soup, fat and lean; they are divided into clear and thick; the garnishings for these soups are either composed of crusts, vegetables, creams of game or poultry, eggs, fish, quenelles, timbales, chiffonades, finely minced herbs, crustacean, farinaceous, etc. These two kinds of soups are divided into six chapters: First, Bisques; second, Consommes and Garnishings; third, Creams; fourth, Cosmopolitan or Mixed; fifth, Fish; sixth, Purees. Purees may be made into creams by using less butter and adding instead cream and egg-yolks, while creams can be turned into purees by suppressing the cream and egg-yolks, and stirring in, when ready to serve, a piece of fresh, fine butter.