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Weights and Measures (II)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES-LINEAR OR LONG MEASURE-SQUARE OR SUPERFICIAL MEASURE - SURVEYORS' AND LAND MEAS- URE-CUBIC OR CAPACITY MEASURE - WOOD, LUMBER AND BOARD MEASURE - MEASUREMENT OF STONE AND BRICK - DRY AND LIQUID MEASURE-MEASURES OF WEIGHT-COOKS' TABLE OF PROPORTIONS-CIRCULAR MEASURE-LONGITUDE AND TIME-MEASURES OF VALUE-UNITED STATES MONEY- ENGLISH OR STERLING MONEY-METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES There are four principal classes of weights and measures, namely: Measures of Length, of Surface, of Volume, and of Weight. In addition to these are measures of value as applied to money and coinage-measurement of time, temperature, and others. The principle underlying the use of weights and measures is that of reference to an agreed unit as standard. Some distinct means of determining quantity is essential to the most primitive forms of human society. Hence, the use of weights and measures is very ancient. As the applications of this principle have increased in number and importance with advancing civilization, a great variety of different units as standards of measurement, adapted to different purposes, have been introduced. The result is a great degree of confusion in the common mind on this subject which entails enormous loss and expense in all commercial business. An attempt has been made by scientific men to remedy this condition by the introduction of the metric system, but thus far this system has not come into general use in the Englishspeaking world.

At present the units in general use in the United States are as follows: of measures of length, the unit for carpentry and mechanics is the foot.

This is subdivided into inches and lines, or inches, halves, quarters, and so on. The unit for textile fabrics is the yard divided into quarters and nails. For field 'surveying, the chain divided into links and decimals. For road measure, the mile divided into furlongs and rods. The units of square or superficial measure are the squares of these with the addition as a unit for land measure of the acre.

Of capacity measures, the units for liquids are the gallon, quart, pint, and gill. For cereals and other dry substances, the bushel and peck. For fire wood, the cord. The unit of weight for ordinary commerce is the avoirdupois pound, divided into halves, quarters, and so on; or, for large masses, into the quarter, hundred, and ton. The unit for bullion, plate, and coin, or jewelers' measure, is the pound troy which is irregularly di.. vided. The unit for drugs and medi.. cines, or apothecaries' measure, is a pound equal to the pound troy but differently subdivided. Jewelers also make use of a unit for the measurement of gems called the carat. Origin of Standards. - The derivation of the original units of linear measurement appears to have been from comparison with various parts of the human body. The use of the foot seems to have originated in Greece, the standard, according to tradition, having been taken from the foot of Hercules. The natural mode of measuring various distances by counting one's steps, which is still occasionally made use of for rough measures, early gave rise to the pace as a unit or standard. Hence, the Roman mille passuum, 1,000 paces, from which has been derived the mile of the present day. The ancient cubit is taken from the length of the forearm. This is still a standard of measurement in many Eastern countries.¹ The ell, a term used in Europe down to our own time for cloth measure, is also derived from the forearm. The English yard, from an old English term meaning to gird, signifies the girdle or circumference of the body.

The fathom is from an old English word meaning to embrace and signifies the length of two arms. The breadth of the hand or palm is still used as a standard in the measurement of the height of horses. The nail and the thumb's breadth have also been frequently made use of.

Measurements of weight were a much later introduction. The wheatcorn or grain of wheat, required by law to be taken from the middle of the ear, was used in England as a standard of weight until within modern times. With the introduction of modern science, the length of a pendulum measuring seconds under certain prescribed conditions has been taken as a linear standard. And the weight of a prescribed quantity of water under certain conditions has been taken as a standard of weight.

The standard of solid measure has also been similarly determined.

The unit of the metric system is the meter, intended to be one ten millionth of the distance from the equator to the pole. This unit has been agreed upon as a standard by the principal European nations and has been accepted by Great Britain and 1 Among the Israelites the cubit was divided Into two spans, the spans into three palms, the palms into four digits, the order of nature being adhered to throughout. the United States, although its use is not compulsory in either of those countries. The standard units employed by the United States Government at Washington are themselves corrected by reference to the international meter. Hence, the metric system is actually the ultimate standard in the United States. It is to be very much regretted that the use of the metric system has not become universal. At present, it is employed by somewhat more than half the population of the civilized world. LINEAR OR LONG MEASURE Linear Measure. -The standard of linear, or long measure, is the length of a pendulum that will vibrate in a vacuum, at the sea level in London, at 62° F., once in a second. Scientists have determined that such a pendulum is nearly 39.1393 inches in length; of this is taken as a standard yard.

The standard yard of the United States is a metal bar kept at Washington. It is identical with the English imperial yard. Subdivisions and multiples of this are shown in the following table: 12 inches. 3 feet.. 5 yards..... 40 poles.. 8 furlongs...... rods. 320 1760 5280 feet.... 3 yards.... 3 miles 69% miles. 1 foot. 1 yard. .1 rod, pole, or perch. 1 furlong. 1 mile. 1 mile. 1 mile. 1 mile. 1 league. .1 degree of a great circle of the earth The mile is commonly divided into halves, fourths, eighths, etc. The furlong (1% of a mile) is seldom used. A league is 3 miles, but its length is variable, for it is, strictly speaking, a nautical term, and should be 3 geographical miles, equal to 3.45 statute miles; but when used on land, 3 statute miles are said to be a league.

The length of a degree of latitude varies; 69.16 miles is the average length, and is that adopted by the United States Coast Survey WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Less Common Linear Measures.

Additional linear measures less commonly used are the following: 48 hair's breadths.......1 inch. 3 barley corns... .1 inch. 3 inches... 1 palm. 4 inches.... 1 hand. 18 inches. 21.888 inches.... 2 feet... 3 feet... 3.28 feet. 11 feet... 1 English cubit. 1 Bible cubit. 1 military pace. 1 common pace. 1 meter. .1 great cubit.

In biblical and other old measurements, the term span is sometimes used, which is a length of 9 inches.

The sacred cubit of the Jews was 24.024 inches in length.

The common cubit of the Jews was 21.704 inches in length.

Horses are measured directly over the forefeet, and the standard of measure is 4 inches-called a hand.

Subdivisions of the Inch. - Tool cutters and other machinists engaged in fine metal work, scientists, revenue officers, and some others, divide the inch decimally, i. e., into tenths, hundredths, etc. Carpenters and mechanics engaged in rough work divide the inch into eighths or sixteenths.

The former custom of dividing the inch into twelve parts, called lines, has gone out of use.

Following are equivalents of the decimal parts of a foot in inches:

Decimal Fractions value of a foot in feet. in inches.